Not exactly! I see what you mean, I am aware of the example with "dusting" in English. They are so-called "self-antonyms". In Russian the true self-antonyms are very rare. Two well-known examples are "прослушать" and "просмотреть".
"Прослушать" means "to listen something from beginning to end, to listen the whole piece of speech, or broadcast, or lecture etc."
The other meaning of "прослушать" is "to miss hearing of something": someone told something but you failed to hear etc.
So, when a radio announcer says after a proadcasting program is finished: "вы прослушали передачу ..." it can be understood ambiguously. Actually, he means "you have listened (the entire) program...", but another possible meaning is "you missed the program..." (imagine, you have just turned the radio on when the program is finished)
The same is with "просмотреть" - 1) to watch from beginning to end (a whole movie, or a whole TV program etc.); 2) to miss watching something (when they showed but you failed to notice etc.). So, "вы просмотрели фильм" can mean 1) you finished seeing the whole movie; 2) you missed seeing the movie.
Those self-antonyms exist due to the fact that the Russian verb prefix "про-" has multiple meanings. One of them is "to have something done from beginning to end", another one is "to skip, to miss, to pass something".
But I cannot think of any other self-antonyms in Russian. Maybe there are some more, but nothing else comes to my mind now.
However, the case with "учить" has nothing to do with this thing. We will never confuse its meanings due to different cases and different syntax.
When "учить" means "to learn something", then the learner is in Nominative, and the subject he learns is in Accusative (quite straightforward, similar to English): Я учу английский язык = I learn English, я учу физику = I learn physics etc.
But when "учить" means "to teach something to someone", then the teacher is in Nominative, the student is in Accusative, and the subject is in Dative:
Я учу детей английскому языку = I teach English to children, я учу студентов физике = I teach physics to students.
Even if the student is omitted, there is still the difference (due to different cases). So, "Я учу английский язык" is always understood as "I learn English", but "Я учу английскому языку" is always understood as "I teach English (to someone, not mentioned)".
But Russians do not usually think of those nuances, they just understand them intuitively, Thus, "учить" is the same verb for a Russian who is a total beginner in English, and he might not understand the difference between "to learn" and "to teach" due to the lack of cases in English.